General Suggestions for Chinese Writers of English - [1 ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE](#1%20ACTIVE%20AND%20PASSIVE%20VOICE) - [2 A LOT](#2%C2%A0A%20LOT) - [3 Age and related terms](#3%C2%A0Age%20and%20related%20terms) - [4 AND (part 1) at the start of a sentence](#4%C2%A0AND%20(part%201)%20at%20the%20start%20of%20a%20sentence) - [5 AND (part 2):](#5%C2%A0AND%20(part%202):) - [7 ALTERNATIVE WORDING](#7%C2%A0ALTERNATIVE%20WORDING) - [10 BESIDES / ASIDE FROM](#10%20%20BESIDES%20/%20ASIDE%20FROM) - [11 Chinese and English fonts](#11%20%20Chinese%20and%20English%20fonts) - [12 Contractions](#12%20%20Contractions) - [13 Dashes (short version)](#13%20Dashes%20(short%20version)) - [14 Dashes (long version)](#14%20%20Dashes%20(long%20version)) - [15  Dependent Clauses](#15%20%C2%A0Dependent%20Clauses) - [17 HOWDY!](#17%20%20HOWDY!) - [18 INFORMAL ENGLISH](#18%20%20INFORMAL%20ENGLISH) - [19 Capitalize1](#19%20Capitalize1) - [21 THE LITTLE THINGS](#21%20%20THE%20LITTLE%20THINGS) - [22 MATCHING NOUNS AND PRONOUNS WITH NUMBERS](#22%20%20MATCHING%20NOUNS%20AND%C2%A0PRONOUNS%C2%A0WITH%20NUMBERS) - [24 NOWADAYS](#24%20NOWADAYS) - [25 Numbers one to ten](#25%20%20Numbers%20one%20to%20ten) - [26 More on numbers](#26%20%20More%20on%20numbers) - [27 pH](#27%20%20pH) - [28 Plurals](#28%20%20Plurals) - [30 Capitalize2](#30%20Capitalize2) - [31 Punctuation fonts](#31%20%20Punctuation%20fonts) - [33 Semicolons](#33%20%20Semicolons) - [35 That](#35%20%20That) - [36 Time units](#36%20%20Time%20units) - [37 Title format](#37%20%20Title%20format) - [37 (new)](#37%20(new)) - [38 WHOLE VS ENTIRE](#38%20%20WHOLE%20VS%20ENTIRE) - [39 Words Series/Respectively](#39%20%20Words%20Series/Respectively) ## 1 ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE Professional writers learn to use "active voice" and avoid passive verbs. When I was 40 years old I finally learn the difference between active and passive voice.  Because people who read this (based on my pointing it out to them) are advanced English speakers I want to provide some details usually saved for professional writers.  In short, stories written in the active voice are much more interesting to read than something written in passive voice.  Active verbs show action.  Passive verbs show a state of being or existing.  Examples: Active verbs: slept, jarred, stood, broke, rushed, grabbed, stabbed. Passive verbs: was sleeping, was ringing, was standing, is, are, was, were, have been, might be, etc.  Active verbs are ALL the other verbs which never express the state of being (forms of the verb "to be.". Active verbs: go, run, think, do, smell, taste, fly, ride, drive, answer, swim, sat, did. I slept soundly last week when the doorbell's ringing jarred me awake.  A strange man stood at the door. I was sleeping soundly last week.  But the doorbell was ringing.  A strange man was standing at the door. Professional writers like newspaper reporters and authors strive to you've learned to use the active voice. Learning to use active verbs will make your writing much more interesting to read.  The girl was riding her bike. She was sleepy. Many cars were in the road. The girl was peddling slows. One driver was drunk. He was not driving very well. The drunk man might have been sleepy too. The man was also very close to the girl. She was watching him and he was driving straight at her. She was needing to get out of the way. She was driving into the ditch to avoid the drunk man who was running off the road. 动词：was, was, were, was, was, was, have been, was, was, was driving, was needing, was driving, was. 实义动词的动词举例来说（没有意思）： The girl rode her bike. She felt sleepy. Many cars buzzed up and down the road. The girl peddled slowly. One driver had drunk too much beer. He drove very poorly. The drunk man felt sleepy too. The man also approached the girl She saw him and he drove straight at her. She needed to get out of the way. She drove into the ditch to avoid the drunk man who ran off the road. 实义动词的动词举例来说：rode, felt, buzzed, peddled, had drunk, drove, felt, approached, saw, drove, needed, drove,ran. ## 2 A LOT The phrase "a lot of" is informal and should be avoided in formal English like letters and resume.  Replace it with: many, a considerable amount of, a large number of, etc. By the way, until I was in college, I used "alot" as one word!  ## 3 Age and related terms Many words can be used to describe a person's age.  However, many young people will describe themselves as a "boy" or "girl" on Lang-8.  In the US, at college age, people begin to call themselves "men" and "women."  College age students are considered adults, so the words change.  While women will often refer to themselves as "girls" (as in spending a "girl's night out" on the town with friends), if a man calls them a girl, he might get slapped.  Here is a list of English age terms for you to consider. Newborn: a child up to a few months old. Baby: 0-2 years old, especially younger. Toddler: a young child who is learning to walk. In the terrible two's: a young child who is two years old and demanding to have anything he or she wants. Youngster: children, mainly up to age 10, but for an older person born in the 1930s, this would include anyone under age 25 or younger than they are.  Child: any age under 18, but especially under teenage. Kindergartener: a child in kindergarten, ages 3 to 6. The word comes from German: kinder = child; garten = garden, so a kindergarten is a garden of children. Primary school age child: grades one to three, ages 6 to 8.  You will notice some terms overlap. Middle school age child: grades four to six. Junior high school: usually grades seven and eight, sometimes including grade nine. Teenager: age 13 to 19 only. High school student: grades nine (or ten) to 12. Girl: any age, but especially to age 14 to 15.  Adult women sometimes talk of their girlfriends and call themselves girls at any age.  Young woman: generally age 14 to 16 up to about age 20 or 30, depending on who is talking.  Same for young lady, but usually said by a mother when she is angry.  "Young lady[or young man]get in here and do these dishes right now!" Young man: used by mothers for boys of age 13 to 18 more or less.  College age. Man/woman: age 18 or above. ## 4 AND (part 1) at the start of a sentence "And" is considered too informal for starting formal English sentences in scientific papers, business letters, resumes, etc. Starting a sentence with "And" is considered informal.  I try to teach formal English like you would use on a resume (=CV) or business letter.  What is better? "Also," "Therefore," "Furthermore," "In addition," etc.  Scientific journals prefer "Also," because it is shorter. ## 5 AND (part 2) A SIMPLE USE OF "AND"... When using "and" to connect two things, do not use a comma. Correct: Roy and I went to the store. We are good friends with the guys in the dorm and some people we go to class with. Sometimes, when I lay awake at night and look at the stars, I wonder what is out there in space. I can't sleep well sometimes and have to count to myself to go to sleep. Incorrect: Roy, and I went to the store. We are good friends with the guys in the dorm, and some people we go to class with. Sometimes, when I lay awake at night, and look at the stars, I wonder what is out there in space. I can't sleep well sometimes, and have to count to myself to go to sleep. A MORE COMPLEX USE OF "AND"... (see also "Words in a Series" below)... Do use a comma with "and" when you use words in a series(see the other entry below, number 21, currently). Correct: Roy, John, and I are good friends. Also considered correct (but can be misleading at times)（看这个句子是正确的（但是有时候会误认为是错的）：）: Roy, John and I are good friends. If a sentence is long and confusing, use a comma before "and" to break up the sentence, or replace "and" with "as well as."（如果一个句子太长了又读起来很晦涩难懂，在 "and" 前面添加逗号对句子进行分段，或者用 "as well as" 来代替 "and"。） Correct example: Roy and I are good friends and we went to the store with Marcy and Melinda. Correct AND easier to understand（正确使用 "AND" 使句子更加简单明了）: Roy and I are good friends, and we went to the store with Marcy and Melinda. Roy and I we went to the store with Marcy and Melinda as well as went swimming later. 05："AND" 的用法（中文） 一个简单用法：用 "and" 连接两个东西时，不要使用逗号。 正确用法：Roy and I went to the store. We are good friends with the guys in the dorm and some people we go to class with. Sometimes, when I lay awake at night and look at the stars, I wonder what is out there in space. I can't sleep well sometimes and have to count to myself to go to sleep. 错误用法：Roy, and I went to the store. We are good friends with the guys in the dorm, and some people we go to class with. Sometimes, when I lay awake at night, and look at the stars, I wonder what is out there in space. I can't sleep well sometimes, and have to count to myself to go to sleep. 一个复杂点的用法：使用一系列词语时要加上逗号（在第 21 条建议中也会说到这一点） 正确用法 1: Roy, John, and I are good friends. 正确用法 2（但是有时会引起误解）：Roy, John and I are good friends. 如果一个句子又长又难，可以在 "and" 前加逗号来断句，或者用 "as well as" 来代替 "and" 原句（表达正确）：Roy and I are good friends and we went to the store with Marcy and Melinda. 更好理解的表达： Roy and I are good friends, and we went to the store with Marcy and Melinda. Roy and I we went to the store with Marcy and Melinda as well as went swimming later.     ## 6 AS WELL AS These sentences are their own examples and you will see what I mean as you read. Sometimes, a writer uses good English and has no mistakes on Lang-8.  However, sometimes we tend to use "and" too frequently. This can make a sentence confusing.  Red indicates errors; blue indicates correct sentences. For example: Tom and Haibo arrived and Ann and Mary were late. Here, "and" is used too many time.  I would not use "as well as" in this case, but it is a good example of a confusing sentence that uses "and" too many times.  Here's a better version: Tom and Haibo arrived; however, Ann and Mary were late. The word "and" can be used too many times and in a way that makes a sentence confusing. We had potatoes and gravy for supper and pie and ice cream for dessert. This sentence works better with "as well as." We had potatoes and gravy for supper as well as pie and ice cream for dessert. As you can see, the second sentence is easier to understand.  Here's a more complex example: During the experiments we established 40 plots with a radius and within those plots we identified and counted all vascular plant species and also took 5 randomly placed soil samples and measured soil chemistry variables. This sentence is best broken up with "in addition" or made into two sentences.  But it is clearer with "as well as" in a few places.  As usual, it can be written in several ways as follows: Using "in addition:" During the experiments we established 40 plots with a radius and within those plots we identified and counted all vascular plant species; in addition, took 5 randomly placed soil samples and measured soil chemistry variables. Using "as well as:" During the experiments we established 40 plots with a radius and within those plots we identified as well as counted all vascular plant species and also took 5 randomly placed soil samples as well as measured soil chemistry variables. During the experiments we established 40 plots with a radius and within those plots we identified and counted all vascular plant species as well as took 5 randomly placed soil samples and measured soil chemistry variables. Avoiding using a run-on sentence (see the standard not about "run-on sentences") by using short sentences: During the experiments we established 40 plots with a radius. Within those plots we identified and counted all vascular plant species. We also took 5 randomly placed soil samples and measured soil chemistry variables. This last one is probably best! I also added this comment without realized I'd already written the above text! Use "as well as" when there are too many "ands" in a sentence. For example, "I like dogs and cats and wild animals such birds and mice" is better if written as "I like dogs and cats as well as wild animals such birds and mice."  As another example, "Climatic data related to mean annual temperature and rain and soil conditions such as pH, total nitrogen, total phosphorus, and total organic matter content were measured" works better when written as "Climatic data related to mean annual temperature and rain as well as soil conditions such as pH, total nitrogen, total phosphorus, and total organic matter content were measured." The phrases "along with," "while," and some other can be used in this way.  "Climatic data related to mean annual temperature and rain were measured while a soil test kit was used to check soil conditions such as pH, total nitrogen, total phosphorus, and total organic matter content." It never hurts to have plenty of examples ## 7 ALTERNATIVE WORDING Sometimes, a writer uses good English and has no mistakes on Lang-8.  However, there are always new ways to say almost anything.  Rather than make corrections, I may change the wording and say, "This is alternative wording" meaning, "You made no mistakes but here is another way to say that.  For example, here are several ways to say the same thing.（有时候，Lang-8 上的作者英语运用的相当好了，也没有错误。然而，总是有新的表达方式来描述相似的意思。不是要去改正句子的错误，我会去改正句子的措辞或者语序，" 这是个可供选择的用法 "。这意味这 " 你在写句子时并没有犯错误，只是这儿还有另一种方法来描述它 "。比如说，下面就展示了很多方式来描述同一个东西。） The bird landed on the bird feeder outside my kitchen window, grabbed a seed, and flew away. Outside my kitchen window, the bird landed on the feeder, picked up a seed, and took off. The bird swooped in and dashed to the feeder, stole a single seeds, headed back to the hills. A bird flapped into the feeder, landing lightly, selecting a seed, checking it with a tap, and dashed for the protection of the bushes. As you can see, there are many ways to say that.  As I loved to say in high school, "In math 2 + 2 always equals 4, but in English there are a thousand right ways and a thousand wrong ways to say something."（诚然，有很多方式描绘同种事物。我高中的时候就很喜欢说："2+2=4，那是数学。在英语里面，这有无数种正确的或错误的方式去表达同种意思 "。）  ## 8 APPOSITIVES（同位语） Appositives are strange little things many non-native and native speakers of English never master (hence this note).  What is an appositive?  Who cares?  What I want to know is how to write good English, not a bunch of grammatical terms! An appositive is a word or phrase that repeats the noun or pronoun that is provided before the appositive in the sentence. Here's some examples of nouns and appositives.  Then I will use them in sentences to show you how they work. NOUN or PRONOUN (including phrases) -- APPOSITIVE (including phrases)（名词或代词（包括短语）-- 同位语（包括短语）） black dog -- the dog that bit me woman -- the one in the red dress singing frog -- the frog on the rock iceberg -- the one that would sink the Titanic The black dog, the dog that bit me, has still not been captured. That woman, the one in the red dress, is my beautiful wife. The singing frog, the frog on the rock, is calling for a mate. That iceberg, the one that would sink the Titanic, was probably calved off the coast of Greenland. What you need to know is that appositives are "set off" by commas. Use a comma before and after an appositive in a sentence. Then you will be positively right!（你需要注意的是同位语需要和标点符号来使用（如之前的破折号和逗号），同位语的开头和结尾都需要加上标点。然后你就可以写出正确的同位语了。）  ## 9 BECAUSE  The word "because" sometimes creates problems for Chinese writers of English. For example, look at this "sentence."  I say "sentence" because it is not a complete sentence.           Because I am busy treating some calculated data. This is not a complete sentence because something else is needed.  Here are some ways to make it a complete thought and sentence.           Because I am busy treating some calculated data, I've not sent you an email.           Because I am busy treating some calculated data, my girlfriend feels neglected.           I can't meet you for lunch, because I am busy treating some calculated data.           My dog bit me, because I am busy treating some calculated data.           Because I am busy treating some calculated data, I should be able to trick the bank into sending me some extra money. Obviously, something is happening because of something else.  You can't have one without the other.  ## 10 BESIDES / ASIDE FROM My Chinese friends sometimes use "Besides" when I know that "Aside from" works better.  In oral English, the two phrases are fairly interchangeable.  But in formal English, "aside from" often works better at the beginning of a sentence.  The two phrases are often interchangeable.  So, I'll just give an example of what I like and don't like.  It is a matter of style. Preferred (我喜欢的使用：):    Aside from football, I don't watch many sports on TV.    Aside from her, I don't have any female friends.    Aside from cats and dogs, I really like having pets.    Aside from the guy that hit me, I also don't like you very much anyway.    Aside from supper, I also burned the cake. Sounds odd to me (我觉得别扭的使用：):    Besides football, I don't watch many sports on TV.    Besides her, I don't have any female friends.    Besides cats and dogs, I really like having pets.    Besides, I don't like you very much anyway.    Besides, I burned the cake. ## 11 Chinese and English fonts Chinese and English fonts (also applies to other languages such as Japanese): SEE "Punctuation" ## 12 Contractions I often say "Contractions are our friends!"  Why?  Because my Chinese friends often neglect them and the contractions get lonely as a result!  Ha! Seriously, use contractions to make your English sound more normal.  Example: I won't do that. Do not use contractions if you want to emphasize "not."  For example: You want me to kill the kittens so we don't have to find homes for them?  I will not do that!" ## 13 Dashes (short version) Hyphen (-): Use for hyphenated words and hyphenate names. Example: wind-up clock; Smith-Jones. Endash (–): for ranges of numbers or dates (but not for negative numbers _and_ in names such as company names such as Mann–Whitney or Pitney–Bowles. Correct: May–June, 14 May–20 June, 57–99 m, 2011–2012, or in references, 44(1):355–374. Incorrect: May-June, 14 May-20 June, 57-99 m, 2011-2012, or in references, 44(1):355-374. Minus sign: use for negative numbers. Examples: −−−−−− (minus sign) and not––––––(endash). −42°C, −4°C–−2°C (has two minus signs and an endash!), −14 m, −14 m s−1, −14kg ha−1; not endash (–14 m,–14 m s–1) Emdash (—): for "setting off" phrases in sentences—in this way—much like using an appositive such as the following (dog, and "one[dog]"); the black dog, the one that bit me, is over there. Figure dash (‒): the figure dash is used for phone numbers. Comments: The endash and minus sign are very similar. You can find the minus sign next to the ∑ symbol in MS Word's symbol list. The minus signs have a tiny space between them if written in a row. They are also placed slightly higher than an endash. Why?  Because.   ## 14 Dashes (long version) My main client put out a simple message to explain dashes.  It says: 1. Hyphen, en-dash, and minus sign Although they all look about the same, hyphens, en-dashes, and minus signs are used in different situations. For example, hyphens are used in compound words (e.g., energy-saving) and in some cases to link prefixes to words (e.g., post-translational). En-dashes are used to connect two things in a range (e.g., 1998–2011) or to indicate an interaction/inter-relationship, and the minus sign is used for negative numbers (e.g., −88°C). For comparison, they are -,–,—, −, or hyphen, emdash, endash, and minus sign, respectively. I have not figured out how to use alt-keystrokes to enter them on my laptop. For example, a minus sign is ALT+8722 (hold down the ALT key and type 8722 to get a minus sign on some computers (Macs use different keys, not ALT). My guidelines have changed. I try to keep them 1) complete, and 2) simple because I use them for clients in comments on papers. Here's my guidelines: Hyphen (-): Use for hyphenated words and hyphenate names. Example: wind-up clock; Smith-Jones. Endash (–): for ranges of numbers or dates (but not for negative numbers _and_ in names such as company names such as Mann–Whitney or Pitney–Bowles. Correct: May–June, 14 May–20 June, 57–99 m, 2011–2012, or in references, 44(1):355–374. Incorrect: May-June, 14 May-20 June, 57-99 m, 2011-2012, or in references, 44(1):355-374. Minus sign: use for negative numbers. Examples: −−−−−− (minus sign) and not––––––(endash). −42°C, −4°C–−2°C (has two minus signs and an endash!), −14 m, −14 m s−1, −14kg ha−1; not endash (–14 m,–14 m s–1) Emdash (—): for "setting off" phrases in sentences—in this way—much like using an appositive such as the following (dog, and "one[dog]"); the black dog, the one that bit me, is over there. Figure dash (‒): the figure dash is used for phone numbers. Comments: The endash and minus sign are very similar. You can find the minus sign next to the ∑ symbol in MS Word's symbol list. The minus signs have a tiny space between them if written in a row. They are also placed slightly higher than an endash. Why? Because. ## 15  Dependent Clauses Some sentences seem like complete sentences, but they are not really complete sentences. They present an idea but lack  an ending. For example: While some people said that some dishonest activities do not mean harm. An English teacher would call your statement an "incomplete sentence" or a "sentence fragment" or a "dependent clause."  A dependent clause is not a complete sentence.  Here is a complete sentence. While some people said that some dishonest activities do not mean harm, I do not believe this is true I'm a botanist/ecologist/writer/editor and not really an English teacher. But I do know a dependent clause when I see one.  I will let the real English teachers tell why a clause is dependent. My goal is to help you write, not to teach like an English teacher. I take a unique approach. Here are some examples: Dependent clause examples (not complete sentences): When I woke up this morning.After I ate breakfast. Soon after I woke up. While that dog may look nice. As the bird hit the window. In dependent clause examples (complete sentences): When I woke up this morning, the dog bit me. After I ate breakfast, I took a nap. Soon after I woke up, it started raining. While that dog may look nice, it chased me down the street and tried to bite my leg. As the bird hit the window, the cat grabbed for it. Dependent clauses are not complete sentences because the action is not completed. ## 17 HOWDY  "Howdy" is an informal greeting use in the south central and southwestern parts of the U. S.  For example, cowboys in Texas still use it almost exclusively.  You might hear it from Alabama west to Arizona and certainly as far north as northern Arkansas and Tennessee. ## 18 INFORMAL ENGLISH Some words are too informal for use on resumes, in business letters, and in scientific journals.  They are fine for informal English or spoken informal speech.  They include: got, gonna, LOL, Ha!, and so on. ## 19 Capitalize1 Sometimes, someone in a position of power makes a mistake.  Then, that mistake gets transmitted to others and language changes.  Microsoft Word capitalizes the word Internet, and that in my humble opinion, is a mistake.  Capitalized words are proper nouns and some words are even exceptions.  For example, we capitalize Venus, Mars, and Jupiter, but do not capitalize the earth, sun, and moon.  Why?  Because they are more common and less exceptional.  The internet is not a brand name like Milky Way candy bars, or a language like Spanish or English.  There are not several different internet so that you have the Chinese Internet, or perhaps (as an exception because it is so isolated, the North Korean Internet).  It is generally one thing, one internet, like the ocean, the land, or a city,  not the Pacific Ocean, Australia, or New York (the latter being proper nouns.  So, in my opinion, do not capitalize the word "internet" in the middle of a sentence. ## 21 THE LITTLE THINGS Word capitalization, punctuation and spaces of English Usage Capitalization (first letter) words Remember that the first word of each sentence of the first letter should be capitalized, in addition to the first letter of a proper noun should be capitalized. Punctuation and spaces Behind the English period to use spaces. Do not use spaces in front of the full stop. In there is a space between each word (not two spaces). I like to leave two spaces after each period (which is a more traditional style). Today, many people use only one space after the period, it does not matter. 1. 在分号、句号和逗号之前不要加空格 Part II: Why details are important? Word capitalization, punctuation and correct use of space is very important. In the end how important? Relying solely on modifying these small mistakes, I can earn hundreds of dollars a month. But even more important is that these details are important to you! When you write a letter to a business, when you prepare your resume, or when you apply to college or to participate in the written part of the GRE, these details will suddenly become very important.  Chinese：，。""！？《》%￥（）(space is added by the font itself; you do not add spaces). English:,.""!?<>%$() (To have space, you have to use the space bar like this: With space:,. ""!? < > % $ () As a result, in formal scientific papers I edit, I'm constantly removing Chinese fonts and replacing them with English for publication of research papers in scientific journals You never make mistakes when learning a language.  You just create learning opportunities.  You'll have numerous learning opportunities here. http://www.sedgehead.com/ index.php/learn-english/8-little-things-are-important ## 22 MATCHING NOUNS AND PRONOUNS WITH NUMBERS If you use numbers in a sentence, remember to match the numbers of nouns and pronouns with the number of things you are talking about.  Red text indicates errors. The boy shared their bikes with his friend. (He only has one bike and one friend). The boys shared their bikes with his friends. (Now there are more than one friend). The girl ran the backhoes and the boy dug the ditch.  (One girl cannot operate more than one backhoe). The researcher counted the eggs in the nest and then recorded the data for the nests in his field notes. (Is there one nest or many?) The corrected sentences should say: The boy shared his bike with his friend. The boys shared their bikes with their friends. The girl ran the backhoe and the boy dug the ditch. The researcher counted the eggs in the nest and then recorded the data for each nest in his field notes.  ## 24 NOWADAYS I've noticed many of my Chinese friends like to use the word nowadays. I consider this word archaic although the British folks may disagree with that. I rarely see it used by Americans and instead tend to say, "these days."  ## 25 Numbers one to ten In formal English, such as in resumes, business letters, scientific and other research publications, the intergers (=whole numbers) one to ten should be written out. Correct: On the Christmas Bird Count, I saw four Ospreys, two Bewick's Wrens, seven Harris' Sparrows, and about four and a half million Starlings. Incorrect: On the Christmas Bird Count, I saw 4 Ospreys, 2 Bewick's Wrens, 7 Harris' Sparrows, and about four and a half million Starlings. ## 26 More on numbers 1. Numbers with more than four digits should be written with commas:    Correct examples: 2,143 and 5,382,000 and 19,003.    Incorrect examples: 2143 and 5382000 and 19003.  1. Numbers that are written is decimal which are less than zero should be preceded by a zero.    Correct examples: 0.143 and 0.00000005 and 0.019.    Incorrect examples:.143 and.00000005 and.019. 1. Reading large numbers.  Reading large numbers is really easy.  Here's the rules.  For three digit numbers, say "number hundred and numbery number."     Examples: 345 is three hundred and forty five; 678 is six hundred and seventy eight. For very large numbers, add (as needed) quadrillion, trillion, billion, million, and thousand, as needed.  You probably don't need larger numbers, since the national debt won't ready a hextillion dollars any time in the near future.      Example: $123,456,789,012,345,678,901 is read as one hundred and twenty three quintillion, four hundred and fifty-six quadrillion, seven hundred and eighty nine trillion, twelve billion, three hundred and forty-five million, six hundred and seventy eight thousand, nine hundred and one dollars. Note that I didn't say "no hundred and twelve billion." Just combine those two rules (in green and red) and you can read any large number easily. ## 27 pH In high school, I didn't like my initials, PEH for Philip E. Hyatt, but when I took chemistry I learned about pH (hydrogen ion concentration).  Since it was scientific, I started signing my signature as pH on some things.  I've used it ever since (1960s).  In 1990 I took biochemistry and learned that everything in biology is controlled by pH.  So since pH controls everything, I really like my name now! ## 28 Plurals Some plural forms of words never take an added S.  As a scientist I run into several such words, which I'll list here. Correct singular AND plural forms: advice, furniture, research, shrimp, slang, stuff. Rarely (or never) used as a noun: advices, furnitures, evidence, researches, shrimps, slangs, stuffs.  Correct plural uses (to emphasize the plural: kinds of advice, stacks or types  or rooms full of evidence, styles of furniture, types of research, slang words, kinds of stuff. Correct uses (but not has nouns): He stuffs the bag full of walnuts.   ## 29 Plurals in Latin As if things were not bad enough (see last note), scientists have to deal with the plural forms of Latin word.  A few hundred years ago biologists got together trying to decide which language should be the language of science internationally.  Latin was chosen for two reason.  Educated Europeans studied Latin at that time and no one could agree on anything else.  Germans wanted German, the English wanted English, and the French wanted French to be the language of science.  Nobody spoke Latin, so they chose it.  This complicates the plural forms for scientific words.  I'm not going to give you the Latin rules, only a few examples. Singular form: bacterium, herbarium, aquarium, genus, species. Correct: bacteria, herbaria, aquaria, genera, species. Incorrect: bacteriums, herbariums, aquariums, genuses, specie. Why?  I can answer that in two words.  It's Latin.   ## 30 Capitalize2 Capitalize the first letter of proper nouns, but not common nouns.  Examples: Common nouns: city, man, woman, ship, province, country, religion. Proper nouns: New York, Lu Changji, Sally, The Queen Mary, Jilin Province, Malaysia, Bhuddism. Note: the word "province" is capitalized for a single province (Jilin Province) but is not capitalized when more than one province is listed (Jilin and Fujian provinces). This has been corrected throughout this paper. ## 31 Punctuation fonts PUNCTUATION: CHINESE AND ENGLISH FONTS My Chinese friends have often not been taught to avoid the use of Chinese fonts when writing English.  I get paid RMB 65 to edit English research papers written by Chinese scientists and much of the work often involves removing the Chinese fonts. What do they look like? Chinese fonts：？，》，《，"，：，}，{，】，【，=，+，_，)，(，，&，^，%，$，#，@，!，~，（note that I've coreectly added NO space with the Chinese symbols）。 English fonts:?, >, <, ",:, }, {,],[, =, +, _,), (,, &, ^, %, $, #, @,!, (note the correct use of a space after every symbol. As you can see, they are often quite different.  Chinese people who write English often forget to put a space after a period or comma,for example,like I just did.This makes their writing look childish (see my "Little things" blog for details). Chinese periods and commas have extra space，and also look different，（like you can see in this sentence）。The Chinese period is a circle and looks like this。so avoid using it with English.  It looks really bad on resumes to mix Chinese fonts with English.  It immediately shouts to the reader "I'm not really good at writing English。"Avoid mixing Chinese fonts with English like I did intentionally in this paragragh.  Also, use a space after a period or comma (and before and after parenthesis) as required. As a professional editor, Chinese writers of English often fail to put a space behind a comma, period, or other punctuation like we do in English. Instead, they pay me $10 a page to fix their errors, sometimes more and sometimes less. Chinese fonts have their own space made into the character itself. If you move your cursor over a Chinese or English character for punctuation, you will see English fonts need you to hit the space bar, but Chinese fonts for punctuation already provide extra space.  You don't have to hit the space bar. English punctuation:,;.!? Chinese punctuation：，；，！？In the English punctuation I provided, I have not added any spaces. English punctuation with spaces:,;.!? As an editor of scientific manuscripts I'm constantly having to look for Chinese fonts that have been left in manuscripts written in English. Scientific journals will want all the Chinese fonts removed. It's a good lesson to learn in both languages. That is, use Chinese for Chinese and English for English.  ## 32 RUN-ON SENTENCES Many Chinese writers of English have been taught, incorrectly, that long sentences are better than short sentences.  What is true is that well written long sentences are better than poorly written short sentences.  My topic here is not long sentences but "run-on" sentences.  The easiest way to explain a run on sentence is to write one.  Here's a good example of a run-on sentence. This sentence, an example of a run-on sentence, is far too long, this is because I have used commas to separate sentences instead of period, so that by writing many phrases and connecting them with commas, I am creating a run on sentence; sometimes you can use a semicolon correctly to separate independent like I'm doing here; that can create a run-on sentence too, as you can see this run on sentence still has no end because it keeps running on and on and on and on and on which gets very tedious after a while because your mind wants the sentence to end, and it never does seem to end, that's because the author has used incorrectly to connect a variety of phrases that should end with periods. Here are some better ways to make sentences long.  Also see my note below on the use of semicolons. 1. If connecting two complete sentences into one, a semicolon often works; this sentence is a good example. 2. If only one part of the sentence has a full subject and verb and the rest are dependent clauses, that can work well.  Here's an example: The boy waited, his hands dripping water, the sweat on his head making wish he was next, watching the boy in front of the line grab the rope, swing over the water, and dive into the river, like he himself wanted to do again. ## 33 Semicolons Use a semicolon (;) to separate two "independent clauses." An independent clause is a clause that can be a sentence.  Examples: Dependent clauses (cannot be sentences by themselves):      The boy in the blue hat...     ... sat on a log.     ... because he was lonely.     ... and then it started to rain. Independent clauses:      The boy sat in the blue hat sat on a long because he was lonely.      And then it started to rain.      The boy sat in the blue hat sat on a long because he was lonely; and then it started to rain. ## 35 That The word "that" can often be deleted without changing the sentence's meaning.  Professional writers for magazines and scientific journals tend to remove it. Compare these sentences. I don't believe that!  The study included a method that used freezing temperatures.  I do believe that rich people are usually not that happy.  I think that you should learn from this experience.  He did it so that his girlfriend would be happy.  I have something that will keep you smiling. I don't believe what you said!  The study included a method using freezing temperatures.  I do believe rich people are usually not very happy.  I think you should learn from this experience.  He did it so his girlfriend would be happy.  I have something which will keep you smiling. Note: The word can be used.  But often it is not needed or the meaning is clearer if some other word is used.  Professional writers avoid it.  Editors cut it out to save space. ## 36 Time units What is a time unit? Anything that describes time  can be considered a time unit. Some words that represent time units are quite obvious:   today, tomorrow,  yesterday,  in a few minutes, in an hour or so, and so on.   Other time units are not as obvious.  For example, I also consider the following phrases to be time units: anyway,  some time, after a while,  later, and so on.  When writing in English  you should separate time units from the rest of the sentence by a comma. Time units usually go at the  beginning or the end  of a sentence, but are often correct anywhere in the sentence. Here are some correct examples: Yesterday, I went to the store.   I went to the store, yesterday. I went, yesterday, to the store. Tomorrow, I will go to school. Anyway, I'm waiting for the weekend.  Someday, I hope to go to China. Time units include introductory words such as: Today, I am writing a blog. Tomorrow, I will write a blog. Yesterday, I wrote a blog. Last week, I kissed a dog. Sometime, I should wash my lips. Anytime, you can kiss me! This rule also applies to introductory words. These act like time units and are also normally separated by a comma within a sentence. Specifically, I should not have said that. However, I already said it. Therefore, my wife probably won't kiss me. In addition, the cat won't lick me. Moreover, I don't think I want to kiss the dog again. Anyway, I hope you understand. ## 37 Title format TITLE FORMAT Title format: short and sweet!  Long titles are tedious. My Chinese friends use a variety of informal titles for blogs. I tend to teach the formal use of English. Formal titles  are what would be used for scientific journal articles, magazine articles, and newspaper headlines. the rules are fairly simple.  Titles should be short, rather than long and should usually not ask questions.  There are exceptions to every rule.  The major words in a title should be capitalized.  Here are some examples from today's newspaper. Israel Strike Kills 11 Civilians (contains an error!) EPA Turns Down States' Request for Ethanol Waiver School Official Loses Appeal on Sexual Abuse Reporting Norfork Council Sets Meeting Agenda Library to Close for Thanksgiving Consumers Hesitant to Upgrade to Windows 8 Note the use of capital letters on most, but not all, words.  The error?  It should be Isreali Strike Kills 11 Civilians.  The rules are never set in stone, and this is especially true for poetry.  Some people will capitalize the first letter of ALL words in a title.  Others will only capitalize the first letter of the first word and of proper nouns.  It is your choice, since it is a matter of style. ## 37 (new) Want, will, and would like This note is about a finer point of English, providing more detail than most.  I want to explain the meanings of "want," "will," and "would like." The word want in English can be a little strong in formal English, but the meaning can change based on how you say something.  I might say, "I want to go to the store later," and it simply expresses that desire.  If I tell someone loudly in a strong voice, "I want your wallet," it implies that I am a thief and I will force you to give me your wallet if you don't hand it to me."  I might say, "I want some ice cream," and it simply tells you want I want to eat.  However, if you first tell me, "We are out of money.  We need to get out of the store," and I say, "But, I want some ice cream" it means, "I don't care if we can't afford it.  I want it anyway!" The word "will" is a little stronger.  "I will get some ice cream anyway," expresses my desire to buy it despite the fact we can't afford it.  However, it does not always have a strong meaning.  the word "will" is part of the contraction "I'll."  So, if I say, "I'll go to the store later," I'm just stating a fact.  However, if you tell me we can't afford ice cream and I say, "Well, I will buy it anyway," it means I am going to use my own power, my will, to override the fact we can't afford it and I will by it anyway, whether you like it or not.  I'm told the Germans use "will" in this way and use "mochte" to say "I would like." That brings us to our third phrase, "would like."  If you are writing a letter or trying to be extra polite, use "would like."  If we are in the store, and I tell my wife, "But I would like to buy some ice cream" it means, "I know we can't afford it, but it is my desire to buy some ice cream if you would agree."  So, if you write, "I want to introduce myself...." in a letter, you can make it more polite by saying "I would like to introduce myself...." ## 38 WHOLE VS ENTIRE Sometimes I have difficulty explaining why one word works and another does not.  This is true for "whole" and "entire."  I think the concept is one of informal vs formal English.  In my editing of scientific research papers I often find myself replacing "whole" with "entire" simply because "entire" sounds better.  I don't know why!  Example: This whole group of species is crepuscular. This entire group of species is crepuscular. When I'm talking about a group of anything in scientific writing, I tend to use "entire" and not "whole" although both words work fairly well.  I come across this often enough on Lang-8 that I added to my list here.  While it is partly my style, I think "entire" is used more frequently in this context.  I hope my entire group of Lang-8 friends enjoys this list of suggestions for non-native speakers of English.  ## 39 Words Series/Respectively 2) Words in a series: Words can be written in a series correctly in two ways. The last comma in the second group is called "the serial comma" (or "Oxford comma") but I only say that in case the authors want to search for more info on this topic on the internet. a) The preferred method:            Dogs, cats, and mice eat meat, mice, and grain, respectively.            The twin girls, Obama, and Putin danced all night. b) Also considered correct (but sometimes confusing):            Dogs, cats and mice eat meat, mice and grain, respectively.            The twin girls, Obama and Putin danced all night. Why is the first method preferred? You could read the second meaning (blue text) to mean "Cats and mice both eat mice and grain" which is not the meaning you intended. Also, the second sentence could mean Obama and Putin are twin girls who dance all night or that four people dance all night (the meaning is confusing). RESPECTIVELY: Note the word "respectively" allows you to match up two series of words.  Based on the sentence you know dogs eat meat and mice eat grain. Why not say "Dogs eat meat, cats eat mice, and mice eat grain?"  The word respective is used to save space and make the meaning more clear. This is especially true in long and complex scientific writing.  Consider the following example, with and without the use of "respectively." Shorter, clearer, and better: The results show the Arkansas Ozark Mountain, Arkansas River, and Missouri Ozark Mountain plant communities received 35, 30, and 43 inches of rain each year and 4-10, 0-2, and 4-10 inches of snow each winter, respectively. Longer, confusing, and not as good (but still correct): The results show the Arkansas Ozark Mountain plant community received 35 inches of rain each year and 4-6 inches of snow each winter, the Arkansas River plant community received 30 inches of rain each year and 0-2 inches of snow each winter, and the Missouri Ozark Mountain plant community received 43 inches of rain each year and 4-10 inches of snow each winter. Both sentences use the same ideas, but one is much shorter.  BUT be careful to not use "respectively" if you are not using a series.  Incorrect use of "respectively: The results show the Arkansas Ozark Mountain plant community received 35 inches of rain each year and 4-6 inches of snow each winter, respectively. In the incorrect example, there is no series of items that is being connected.